Category Archives: Rheumatology

Posts related to all Rheumatic and Autoimmune Disease and it’s homeopathic treatment will fall under this category

HEMOPHAGOCYTIC LYMPHOHISTIOCYTOSIS (HLH)

Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a type of Cytokine Storm Syndrome caused due to uncontrolled proliferation of morphologically benign Macropages and Lymphocytes secreting copious amount of Inflamatory Cytokines resulting into Hyperinflamation.

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF HLH

CAUSES OF HLH

Mutations or Single Neuclotide Polymorphism in certain genes gives rise to HLH it can be germ-line defect or may be acquired. There are other factors as well which may cause secondary HLH(sHLH).

  • PRIMARY HLH -Primary that is without any other underlying disease in background it is termed as HLH
  • SECONDARY HLH (sHLH) – HLH secondary to some other primary underlying disease condition or Iatrogenic factors in the backgroung is termed as Secondary HLH or (sHLH)

DISEASES THAT CAUSE SECONDARY HLH (sHLH)

MALIGNANT
  • T-cell lymphoma
  • B-cell lymphoma
  • ALL – Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia, 
  • AML – Acute Myeloid Leukemia,
  • Myelodysplastic Syndrome
NON-MALIGNANT
AUTOIMMUNE
  • Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis
  • Juvenile Kawasaki Disease
  • SLE – Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
  • Juvenile/Adult onset Still’s Disease,
  • RA- Rheumatoid Arthritis
IMMUNODEFICIENCY
  •  Severe Combined Immunodeficiency 
  • DiGeorge Syndrome
  • Wiskott – Aldrich Syndrome
  • Ataxia – Telangiectasia
  • Dyskeratosis congenita
INFECTIONS
  • EBV -Epstein Barr Virus
  • CMV -Cytomegalovirus
  • HIV – Human Immunodeficiency Virus
  • nCoV2019/SARS-CoV-2 probable
  • Certain Bacterias, Fungus and Protozoas

IATROGENIC FACTORS THAT CAUSE SECONDARY HLH (sHLH)

  • Bone Marrow Transplant
  • Organ transplantations
  • Chemotherapy
  • immunosuppressive treatment

PATHOGENESIS OF HLH

HLH is caused due to genetic mutations that may be germ-line defect or acquired

Mutation in gene responsible for decoding a proyien protein in Cytotoxic T-cells and Natural Killer cells which killes virus infected is one of the known factor causing HLH

Genes that have been identified as contributor to HLH are UNC13D, STX11, RAB27A, STXBP2, LYST, PRF1, SH2D1A, BIRC4, ITK, CD27, MAGT1 any SNP or mutation in above mentioned gene that causes decfect in ability to kill virus infected cells or damaged cells.

As the Cytotoxic T-cells and NK-cells lose their ability to kill cells infected with virus or other damaged cells, due to mutation of above mentioned genes, consequently results into uncontroled proliferation of immune system secreting excess quantity of cytokines causing excessive accumulation of Interleukine 1, Interleukine 6, Tumour Necrosis Factor-Alpha, Tumour Necrosis Factor-gamma, Plasminogen Activating Factor, Ferritin etc.

Now excess of IL1,IL6&TNF-alpha leads to fever

TNF-alpha and TNF-gamma in excessive proportion aslo leads to suppression of Heamtopoesis resulting into Cytopenia and inhibition of Lipoprotein Lipase to stimulate Triglyceride Synthesis.

Excess of Plasminogen Activating Factor and Ferritin secreted by activated macrophages leads to Hyperfibrinolysis.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF HLH

In 70% cases the onset is below one year of age.

  • Fever, nausea, vomitting, weakness, debility
  • Hepatomegaly with fatty infiltration in liver
  • Elevated Liver Enzymes
  • Icterus and rashes
  • Spleenomegaly may also show multiple small granulomas in spleen
  • Lymphomegaly may also show calcified nodes
  • Erythrocytopenia- Reduced Red blood cells
  • Leucocytopenia – Reduced White Blood Cells
  • Thrombocytopenia – Reduced Platelets
  • Reduced Serum Albumin
  • Sphingomyelinase elevated
  • Reduced Fibrinogen
  • Elevated Ferritin especially in children of above 10000 is very sensitive and specific for HLH, but no so in adults.
  • Incresase D-Dimer, CRP and ESR

DIAGNOSIS OF HLH

All patient with Hyperferritinaemia combimed with Cytopenia should be suspected for HLH and soon be considered for further investigations without wasting time.

To be clinically corelated with above mentioned sign and symptom of clinical presentation and investigations and bone marrow biopsy as mentioned below

  • Bone Marrow Aspiration and Imprint may show Hemophagocytosis, Cellular Marrow having Dimorphic Maturation with increased Histiocytes and Megakaryocytes

Other Investigations

  • CBC – reduced RBC, WBC and Platelets
  • CRP elevated
  • ESR elevated
  • D-Dimer elevated
  • Serrum Ferritin elevated
  • Liver function Test – liver enzymes elevated
  • Ultrasonography of whole abdomen – Spleen, Liver and Lymphnodes enlarged

Homeopathic Treatment and Medicines of HLH

Its a life-threatening condition and one should not waste time even in suspected cases and all patient with elevated ferritin along with cytopenia should soon be sent for bone marrow biopsy and other confirmatory supportive tests and be kept under constant medical observation.

Homeopathic prescription for HLH should be strictly derived on basis of symptom similarity basis and the potency of homeopathic medicines and repetition of doses should be as per susceptibiloty of the patient and disease symptom and severity as per homeopathic principles.

Homeopathic Medicines for HLH

Below are few homeopathic medicines that could be theraputically indicated and may proove useful in cases of HLH.

  • Aconitum Nepellus
  • Belladona
  • Arsenicum Album
  • Lycopodium
  • Cholestrinum
  • Crategus Oxyacantha
  • Cinchonna Officinalis
  • Ferrum Phosphoricum
  • Tuberculinum
  • Syphillinum
  • Natrum Muriaticum

Homeopathic medicines for HLH should be strictly dispensed under guidance and observation of homeopathic physician

AUTOIMMUNE HEMOLYTIC ANAEMIA AIHA

Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA) also called Immunohemolytic Anaemia is an autoimmune condition where in there are antibodies driven against our own Red Blood Cells. Due to which there is excessive destruction of RBC reducing oxygen carrying capacity of blood.

Pathophysiology

Causes of AIHA

Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA) is believed to be caused due to genetic predisposition and environmental insults on the genome. Still no specific HLA locus has been found which can be related with AIHA in other words, no Human Leucocyte Antigen association has been established yet.

It can be also be secondary to other Autoimmune diseases, Cancers and Infections as mentioned below

1) Autoimmune diseases

  • Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)
  • Rheumatoid Arthritis(RA)
  • Crohn’s Disease
  • Ulcerative Colitis
  • Scleroderma
  • Autoimmune Hepatitis
  • etc

2) Cancers

  • Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia
  • Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
  • Other Blood Cancers

3) Infections

  • Mycoplasma infections
  • Cytomegalovirus(CMV)
  • Epstein-Barr Virus
  • Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
  • Infectious Mononeucleosis
  • Viral Pneumonitis
  • Viral Hepatitis

Differentiation of AIHA

Based on optimal temperature required for reaction of autoantibody of IgG class and autologous erythrocytes AIHA can be differentiated into

  • Warm Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (wAIHA)
  • Cold Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia, further classified into i)Cold Aglutinin Disease (CAD) and ii) Paroxysmal Cold Heamoglobinuria(PCT). These both subtypes can be acute or chronic.
  • Mixed Type
  • Atypical (DAT- negative, IgM -wAIHA)
  • Drug Induced

Classification of AIHA

Clinically AIHA can be clasified as Primary or Secondary

Primary AIHA – It is also called Idiopathic AIHA has no known underlying causative factor and presents itself with hemolysis as predominant feature and other complaints are secondary to it. This type can either be cold or warm thermal relation to reaction mention in above differentiation.

Secondary AIHA – It is usually associated with some primary underlying disease condition. This type usually shows cold thermal relation in reaction that is Cold Agglutinin Disease Category.

Pathogenesis

Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia characterises itself by presence of Anti-RBC autoantibodies with or without activation of Complement-Cascade causing excessive destruction of Erythrocytes(RBC).

There are many mechanisms involved in pathogenesis of AIHA. It is a complex scenario with many mechanisms involing Autoantibodies, Phagocytosis, Antibody Dependent Cell-Mediated Cytotoxity, B Lymphocutes and T Lymphocytes, T regs, Cytokines, and Complement System.

Antibody Dependent Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity (ADCC)

Auto-antibodies are formed by both tissue and circulating self reactive B-Lymphocytes in co-ordination with T-Helper Lymphocytes.IgG sub-classes IgG1 IgG2 IgG3 and IgG4 are involved in ADCC.

Cytotoxic CD8+ T cells and NK cells opsonize the RBC’s with fc portion of IgG for attracting fc receptors on macrophages thus resulting in destruction of RBC by phagocytosis. Occurs in Spleen and lymphoid organs.

Note- Spleenectomy in most cases doesnt have much effect on the disease as in slpeen the erythrolysis is in very lesser proportion in most AIHA cases.

Activation of Final Components of Complement Cascade (Membrane Attack Complex)- DIRECT LYSIS.

IgM dependent- IgM mediated compliment activation results in direct osmotic lysis of RBC, through sequential activation of Membrane attack complex(MAC), in circulation. Also C3b opsonisation of red blood cells by compliment activation results into extracellular erythrolysis by kufper cells of liver, 10 folds more destruction of RBC if compared to ADCC. IgG1 and IgG3 are also responsible in compliment activation to some degree. Majority of erythrolysis is extravascular especially in liver by kufper cells.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

Symptoms develop gradually over months with presenting symptoms usually proportionate to degree of anaemia

  • General signs of anaemia depending on degree of anaemia like weakness, lethargy, breathless, etc
  • signs of Red blood cell destruction.
  • Heamoglobinuria
  • Spherocytes in RBC morphology
  • Increased LDH
  • Spleenomegaly
  • Hepatomegaly
  • Reticulocytes in Circulation
  • Hepatoglulin
  • Jaundice which may be mild to moderate or even severe
  • Angina

DIAGNOSIS of AIHA

  • COOMB’s Test
  • DAT test
  • CBC
  • LDH

HOMEOPATHIC TREATMENT FOR AUTOIMMUNE HEMOLYTIC ANAEMIA (AIHA)

  • Ferrum Metallicum
  • Ferrum Phosphoricum
  • Calcarea Phosphoricum
  • Calcarea Flourica
  • Ruta
  • Calcarea Carbonica
  • Lycopodium
  • Cinchonna Officinalis
  • Arsenicum Album
  • Lachesis
  • Naja
  • Chelidonium Majus

ANAEMIA

Anaemia can be defined as decreased haemoglobin counts or reduced red blood cell counts or reduced oxygen carrying capacity of blood, due to “loss of” or “abnormality of” red blood cells or haemoglobin.

Normal Heamoglobin Counts

  • 6 months to 5 years of age > 11g/dl
  • 5 years to 12 years of age > 11.5g/dl
  • 12years to 16 years of age > 12g/dl
  • Adult Females (non-pregnant) > 12g/dl
  • Adult Females (pregnant) > 11gm/dl
  • Adult Males > 13g/dl

CAUSES OF ANAEMIA

  • Blood losss
  • Excessive Red Blood Cell destruction
  • Heamoglobinopathies
  • Hypovitaminosis B12
  • Hypoferremia
  • Anaemia of Chronic diseases
  • Autoimmune haemolytic anaemia
  • Inflamatory bowel diseases
  • Hypervolemia or water retention due to sodium or other salts.
  • Genetic hereditary conditions like Thalasemia
  • Certain cancers
  • Kidney diseases
  • Reduced erythropoetin production
  • Excessive RBC destruction
  • Impaired RBC production
  • Certain infections like malaria which causes RBC destruction.
  • Certain drugs which causes RBC destruction eg. Quinine causes chinchonism.
  • Bone Marrow lesions and pathologies
  • Etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANAEMIA

There are many types of anaemias. It can be broadly classified into 7 categories depending upon their causes

Anaemia due to

  1. Blood Loss
  2. Hemolysis
  3. Impaired or abnormal Erythropoesis
  4. Hypervolemia
  5. Chronic Diseases
  6. Nutritional deficiency

Based on RBC morphology it can be classified into 3 groups

  • Microcytic
  • Macrocytic
  • Normocytic

FEW COMMON and RARE TYPES OF ANAEMIA

  • Iron Deficiency Anaemia
  • Aplastic Anaemia
  • Megaloblastic Anaemia
  • Pernicious Anaemia
  • Sideroblastic Anaemia
  • Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia
  • Myelodysplastic Syndrome
  • Thalasemia
  • Fanconi Anaemia
  • Congenital Dyserythropoetic Anaemia
  • Daimond-Blacfan Anaemia
  • Myelopthisis
  • Anaemia of Prematurity
  • Erythroblastopenia or Pure Red Cell Aplasia
  • Hereditary Spherocytosis
  • Hereditary Elliptocytosis

SYMPTOMS

  • Weakness
  • Lethargy
  • In children it affects growth in general
  • Somnolence, Drowziness in day time
  • Disturbed sleep at night
  • Pallor, general pale appearance of skin, mucous membranes and eyes.
  • Dyspnoea on Exertion.
  • Reduced Immunity, tendency to catch infections and slow recovery and healing.
  • Bodyaches
  • Cyanosis in severe cases
  • Palpitations
  • Tachycardia
  • Low blood pressure
  • Chest pain
  • Depression
  • Craving for indigestible things , PICA
  • Cold clammy extremities
  • Oedematous swelling of extremities, dependent oedema
  • Angina or cardiac failure in severe cases
  • Will impact general growth and repair of all the vital organs and tissue of the body.

HOMEOPATHIC MEDICINES FOR ANAEMIA

Depending upon the cause of anaemia and general constitution of the patient, one of the following medicines may be called for duty by a homeopathic physician.

  • Ferrum Metallicum
  • Ferrum Phosphoricum
  • Cinchonna Officinalis
  • Natrum Muriatic um
  • Arsenicum Album
  • Abrotanum
  • Hamamelis Verginiana
  • Pulsatilla Nigricans
  • Janosia Ashoka
  • Crotalus Horridus
  • Lachesis
  • Acidum Phosphoricum

SEPTIC ARTHRITIS

Septic Arthritis is invasion of joint by micro-organisms causing inflamation, it is also called infection of joint or Arthritis due to infection or infective arthritis.

CAUSES

VECTORS

Septic Arthritis can be caused due to infection of any of the following vectors

  • Bacteria
  • Virus
  • Fungus
  • Parasite

Most Common Organisms Known to Cause Septic Arthritis.

  • Staphylococci – Methycillin Resistant Staphylococcus Auris(MRSA)
  • Streptococci
  • Escherichia Coli
  • Pseudomona Aeruginosa
  • Neisseria Gonorrhoeae
  • Neisseria Meningitidis
  • Myocbacterium Tuberculosis
  • Salmonella spp.
  • Brucella spp.
  • Eikenella Corodens
  • Pasteurella Multocida
  • Borrelia Burgdorferi
  • Rubella virus
  • Parvovirus B19
  • Chickungunya virus

RISK FACTORS

Usually its not common to get joint infection unless the immunity of a person is weak or there is history of surgery, prosthesis, deep tissue infections etc.

  • Joint Surgery
  • Prosthetic implants
  • HIV
  • Immuno-suppressive Medication
  • Intravenous drug users
  • Rheumatoid Arthritis
  • Osteoarthritis
  • Arthritis due to Gout
  • Gonorrhoea
  • Infective Endocarditis
  • Deep and /or nonhealing wounds
  • Other deep tissue infections
  • Other causes of septicemia
  • Old age

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF SEPTIC ARTHRITIS

  • Usually single joint is infected, less frequently more than one joints are involved.
  • Most commonly involved joint is knee joint and other freqently involved joints are hip, spine, shoulder, wrist, elbow, sacroilliac and sternoclavicular joints.
  • Sudden onset of symptoms, fast progression of disease.
  • Swelling, redness with increased local Heat and pain around joint. Swelling and redness is comparatively much more than other types of arthritis.
  • Fever with or without chills and headache.
  • Cant move joint due to severe pain.
  • Pain aggravated in slightest motion or jarring, pain is ususally aching type with stitching, stinging and pulsating.

DIAGNOSIS OF SEPTIC ARTHRITIS

  • Athrocentesis – microorganisms usually found on culture, WBC count above 50,000-1,00,000/cubic mm, neutrophils more than 90%, lactate count more than 10mmol/l.
  • CBC – increased wbc
  • Blood culture positive for micro-organism
  • ESR – elevated
  • CRP – elevated
  • Procalcitonin – elevated
  • NAAT – to rule out gonorehoea
  • Ultrasound – joint effusion
  • CT scan – Region involved type and extent of damage
  • MRI – Region involved type and extent of damage

HOMOEOPATHIC MEDICINES FOR SEPTIC ARTHRITIS

Septic Arthritis is a medical emergeny case and requires immediate medical intervention, any delay in treatment can cause damage and complete destruction of joint with in hours to days.

Acute fast acting Homeopathic Medicines are selected with special affinity to joints and pathogenesis that of sudden, severe, acute inflamation with much swelling redness. Below is the list of indicated homeopathic medicines that I prefer in case of infective arthritis.

  • APIS MELIFICA
  • BELLADONA
  • LEDUM PALUSTURE
  • RHUS TOXICODENDRON
  • BRYONIA ALBA
  • PYROGENUM
  • ACONITUM NEPELLUS
  • MEDHORRINUM
  • TUBERCULINUM
  • SYPHILLINUM

CARPEL TUNNEL SYNDROME CTS

CARPEL TUNNEL SYNDROME CTS is a condition where in the compression symptoms arise due to bundle compression of structures that pass within carpel tunnel affecting the the Median Nerve.

WHAT IS CARPEL TUNNEL?

CARPEL TUNNEL is normal anatomical structure in our body found in every normal individual. It is formed by carpel bones forming a groove as its floor on dorsal side of hand and flexor retinaculum forming the flat roof of carpel tunnel on palmar side of hand.

It provides attachment and passage at the wrist level for the structures to pass through arm to hand. Muscles related to flexing movements of finger pass through this tunnel alomg with median nerve

Structures Passing Through Carpel Tunnel

  • Flexor Digitalis Superficialis – 4 tendons
  • Flexor Digitalis Profundus – 4 tendons
  • Flexor Pollicis Longus – 1 tendon
  • Median Nerve
  • Flexor Carpi Radialis not exactly pass within the carpel tunnel but it traverse through Flexor Retinaculum that is forming the roof of carpel tunnel.

CAUSES OF CARPEL TUNNEL SYNDROME

Anything that exerts pressure to median nerve giving rise to nerve compression symptoms cause carpel tunnel syndrome. In most cases the cause remains obscure and are idiopathic. Any inflamatory process or water retention or metabolites deposition within tissue may cause increase in volume of structures and total content within the carpel tunnel and will cause in pressure of whole bundle which may cause Carpel tunnel due to increased bundle pressure, similarly the adjecent structures to carpel tunnel if inflamed or injured or any overgrowth of it, may exert pressure on carpel tunnel and median nerve within giving rise to carpel tunnel syndrome. Mechanical reasons like wear-tear and injuries are mostly regarded as major factors with ageing and certain genetic, structural and physiological anomalies are known to increase the risk of Carpel Tunnel Syndrome.

Age and Gender

  • Age – Ageing plays a major role in development of CTS its more commonly found in age above 40yrs
  • Gender –  Female sex is more prone to this condition compared to male.

Mechanical

  • OCCUPATIONAL – Work related frequent repetitive forceful pressures jerk and vibrations on hand on regular basis where in there is no sufficient time given to repair the wear and tear and the damage tend to accumulate over time.
  • POSTURAL HABBITS such that it exerts unusual strain on hand and wrist on regular basis.
  • INJURIES to wrist distal part of forearm and wrist. Fractures involving radius ulna carpel and metacarpel bones like Colle’s Fracture, Boxer’s Fracture etc.

Genetic and Systemic 

  • Prediabetics and Diabetics
  • Obesity
  • Metabolic Syndrome
  • Hypothyroidism
  • Arcomegaly
  • Amyloidosis
  • Rheumatoid Arthritis
  • Gout
  • Tumours
  • Hereditary Neuropathy with Susceptibility to Pressure Palsy – Carcot Marie Tooth Syndrome casused due to mutation in gene HS3TC2
  • Narrow Carpel Tunnel
  • Certain drugs like Corticosteriods or Oestrogen therapy.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF CARPEL TUNNEL SYNDROME

  • Paraesthesia in Index finger, Middle finger, Thumb and the lateral half of  Ring finger
  • Myalgias or neuralgia in forearm upwards to arm, less commonly in wrist and hand
  • Loss of strength of grip and Loss of Manual Dexterity
  • Atrophy of muscles at the base of thumb visible on proximal, thumb-related quadrant of palm (ie proximal lateral quadrant/upper outer quadrant).

HOMEOPATHIC MEDICINES FOR CARPEL TUNNEL SYNDROME CTS

  • HYPERICUM
  • CIMICIFUGA/ACTEA RACEMOSA
  • AGARICUS MUSCARIOUS
  • ACTEA SPICATA
  • PLANTAGO
  • BELLIS PERENIS
  • ARNICA MONTANA
  • GELSEMIUM SEMPERVIRENS
  • TARRENTULA HISPANICA
  • GNAPHALLIUM

TRIGGER FINGER

TRIGGER FINGER or TRIGGER THUMB is a condition where in joints of one or more of the digits(finger/thumb) gets stucked up/locked up at certain postion which is difficult to move and moving it with force may cause popping or clicking sound with pain.

Though it can present in any sex and at any age, it is more commonly found in females around age of 50-60 yrs.

CAUSES OF TRIGGER FINGER/THUMB

Its is also termed as digital Stenosing Tenosynovitis, although there is no predominant inflamation to Tendosynovium but inflamation is found in Tendon Sheath. And also its not comfirmed that inflamatory process has any primary role in its development

Though exact cause behind trigger finger/thumb is not known but the risk factors that tend to increase the incidence of this condition are identified

  • Over straining and over use of hand and fingers espescially activities involving prolonged forceful flexion of digits(fingers/thumb) may be occupational or habbitual routine activities.
  • Frequent injuries – occupational, accidental or even injuries of planned surgery of hand especially ofter surgery for carpel tunnel syndrome
  • Systemic connective tissue disorders
  • Autoimmune diseases especially Rheumatoid Arthritis
  • Hypothyroidism
  • Renal Disease
  • DeQuervain’s Diseases
  • Amyloidosis
  • Diabetes Mellitus and Other Metabolic disorders.

SYMPTOMS OF TRIGGER FINGER/THUMB

  • Though it may involve any digit(thumb/finger) Index finger and Thumb are more frequently involved. One or more digits may be involved.
  • Patient presents with stucked up digit at certain position. It may be at any level from flexed  to extended position usually found at semiflexed position.
  • This locking up may be persistent for a prolonged period of time or may be momentary and recurrent.
  • Aggravations are more commonly experienced at night, especially while holding heavy article with hand or while gripping or applying pressure with fingers or hand.
  • On moving and or forcefully unlocking the stucked finger is bit painful and causes clicking and popping sound
  • In severe cases the finger may be persistently locked for prolonged period of time with constant pain which may also extent to whole hand and wrist.

DIAGNOSIS OF TRIGGER FINGER/THUMB

Diagnosis of trigger finger/thumb is based on clinical symptomatology of the patient where in inflamation or involvement of tendon sheath of flexors is confirmed and excluding probability of other condition like

  • Tumour
  • Sprain of digit
  • Osteoarthritis of metacarpo-phalangeal joint
  • Fracture
  • Tendon Entrapment post-trauma
  • Extensor Apparatus Injury
  • Game Keeper’s Thumb
  • Sesamoid anomaly
  • Dupuytren’s Contracture
  • Focal Dystonia

An injection of lidnocaine in tendon sheath of flexors reduced the pain then it confirms diagnosis Trigger Finger/thumb.

HOMEOPATHIC TREATMENT FOR TRIGGER THUMB

Treatment of trigger finger/thumb is dependent on combination of modalities of physiotherapy, splinting and medication.

HOMEOPATHIC MEDICINES FOR TRIGGER THUMB/FINGER

  • CALCAREA FLOURICA
  • SILICEA
  • THIOSINAMINUM
  • RHUS TOXICODENDRON
  • ACTEA SPICATA
  • THUJA OCCIDENTALIS
  • AGARICUS MUSCARIOUS
  • ARNICA MONTANA
  • BRYONIA ALBA
  • CIMICIFUGA RACEMOSA

REACTIVE ARTHRITIS

Reactive Arthritis was also called Reiter’s Arthritis is RF-negative and HLA-B27 Linked Imflamatory oligoarthritis typical with Enthesitis, accompanied with Inflamatory occular and/or inflamatory genitourinary and other systemic manifestation usually post gastrointestinal or genitourinary infection.

During world war one and two many cases emerged with the Triad of Symptoms viz. Inflamation of Joints, Inflamation of eyes and Inflamation of Uretha. Which drew attention of medical community due to common presentation in many giving it some syndrome like picture. On further investigations it was found out that most of them were exposed to urogenital or Gastro-intestinal infection 1-4 weeks prior to onset of this Triad of Symptoms. This was initially termed as “Fessenger-Leroy-Reiter’s Syndrome” or simply  “Reiter’s Syndrome”. But as the physician Hans Conard Julius Reiter  was involved in attrocities and war crimes with Hitler, so his name was removed and later renamed and termed as “Reactive Arthritis”.

EPIDEMIOLOGY OF REACTIVE ARTHRITIS

  • AGE – It more frequently affects age group of 20-40 years.
  • SEX – It is more common in Males then in Females.
  • ETHNICITY – Due to its association with HLA-B27 it is frequently found in white race compared to dark race as comparatively HLA-B27 occurs more commonly in white population.
  • RISK FACTOR – Person with HIV positive status are more prone to develop reactive arthritis.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF REACTIVE ARTHRITIS

The onset of symptoms of Reactive Arthritis typically starts 4-35 days after an initial infection of gastro-intestinal system or genito-urinary system.

TRIAD OF REACTIVE ARTHRITIS

Reactive arthritis in most of the cases presents where patient cant – SEE, PEE, climb the TREE! due to following Classical Triad of Symptoms of reactive arthritis

i) OLIGOARTHRITIS

Oligoarthritis involving less than five joints. It may frequently involve knee and sacroilliac joint as well. May present itself in additive pattern where it starts with one joint and add another joints subsequently or it may be migratory in pattern where the set of inflamed joints keep changing by addition and simultaneous substraction of joints involved.

ii) NON-GONOCOCCAL GENITOURINARY INFLAMATION

Inflamation of genitourinary system classically presents itself at the onset of the disease. Not always but in many its typically after initial sexual exposure. It presents as frequent burning micturation, uritheritis, prostatitis, balanitis in men and salpingitis, vulvitis and vaginitis in women.

iii) OCCULAR INFLAMATION

Occular Inflamation may present itself as mild conjunctivitis or uveitis in 75% of cases with gastrointestinal origin and 50% of cases with urogenital  involvement. patients have intermittent irritation in eyes with blurred vision typically commences at onset of disease.

OTHER SYMPTOMS

  • Few patients also presents with peculiar symptom which is specific to reactive arthritis, its Keratoderma Blenorrhagica which are small hard nodule commonly appear on soles occasionally on palms and rarely on other parts of body subcutaneous nodules are not incluced. Even in absence of above mentioned triad of symptom the presence of Keratoderma Blenorrhagica is diagnostic for reactive arthritis.
  • In reactive arthritis; typical to HLA B27 related immunological reactions; involves Entheses that is where skeletal muscles attaches with bones through tendons, where it causes Enthesitis and tendon inflamation especially the tendo-achilles and also fascia in particular Plantar Tendinitis.
  • Occasionally patients also suffer from dactilitis giving finger sausage-like apperance “sausage finger” due to inflamation.
  • Mucocutaneous involvement presents as ulcerative or non ulcerative stomatitis, apthous ulcers and geographic tongue are also seen as presentation of this disease
  • Cardiac involvement causing pericarditis and aortic regurgitation in cases which do no recover soon or if its recurring or progressive.
  • Gastrointestinal manifestation like pain and cramps with frequent semiformed stools with mucous and insome cases blood due to  inflamation and ulcceration in gastrointestinal tract.

Most of the cases of Reactive Arthritis recover within six months, in many cases it keeps comming back time and again and in few it becomes chronic and progressive which may increase risk of severe complications.

COMPLICATIONS OF REACTIVE ARTHRITIS

In chronic progressive and recurring cases the patient may develop following complications

  • Ankylosing Spondylosis
  • Disabling Arthritis
  • Aortitis
  • Aortic Regugitation
  • Conduction defects of Heart
  • Pericarditis
  • Amyloid deposits
  • Immunoglobulin A Nephropathy

CAUSE OF REACTIVE ARTHRITIS

Reactive Arthritis is is HLA B27 linked inflamatory arthritis and enthesitis preceeded by a spell of infection either of genito-urinary system  or gastro-intestinal system by following commonly involved organisms

GENITO-URINARY INFECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH REACTIVE ARTHRITIS

  • Chlamydia Trachomatis
  • Ureaplasma Urealyticum

GASTRO-INTESTINAL INFECTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH REACTIVE ARTHRITIS

  • Salmonella Spp.
  • Shigella Spp.
  • Campylobacter Spp.
  • Yersinia Spp.

4-35 days after the spell of urethritis or food poisoning by above mentioned organisms the symptoms of reactive arthritis sets in, where the synovial fluid has negative culture ans is free from infection and but the HLA B27 linked  inflamation is thought to be triggered due to

  • Autoimmune reaction due to cross reactivity of micro-organism antigen with joint tissue  or
  • Micro-organism antigenic components that may have settled in joint tissue.

DIAGNOSIS OF REACTIVE ARTHRITIS

Clinically the Reactive Arthritis can be diagnosed with help of Sensitivity and Specificity Guidlines laid down by American College of Rheumatology, for clinical diagnosis with given set of presenting symptom, its as follows

  1. Arthritis > 1 month with Urethritis and/or cervicitis has  sensitivity of 84.3% and specificity of 98.2%.
  2. Arthritis > 1 month with Urethritis or Cervicitis or bilateral Conjunctivitis has Sensitivity of 85.5% Specificity of 96.4%.
  3. Arthritis, Urethritis and Conjunctivitis has Sensitivity of 50.8% and sensitivity of 98.8%.
  4. Arthritis > 1 month, Conjunctivitis and Urethritis has Sensitivity 48.2% and Specificity of 98.2%.

Patients falling in above criteria or those showing just Keratoderma Blenorrhagica without any other symptoms and other suspected cases can be sent for following test for further evaluation.

  • HLA B27 testing
  • Urine routine and culture
  • STOOL Routine and culture
  • Throat swab culture
  • Cervix and Urethral swab culture
  • Erythrocytes Sedimentation Rate
  • C-Reactive Protein Test

HOMEOPATHIC TREATMENT FOR REACTIVE ARTHRITIS

Being an immune mediated systemic reaction that too the one that is triggered with different causative agents and even to same agents different individuals will respond differently.

Though they may have same set of general symptoms like the classical triad of reactive arthritis but intensity of each of the symptom of triad will differ in each individual,

Now this is where the homeopathic individualisation process starts. In Homeopathy we believe that though majority of human genome is the same but the minor variations in gene and the epigenome make the whole lot of difference in various characteristerics of each individual, similarly their immune reaction also varies, so every person should have individualised medicine.

Homeopathic Treatment is based on symptom similarity and individualisation of case based on peculiar symptoms based on which the case is individualised and medicine is selected.

Alternatively as per Homeopathic principle of Genus Epidemicus or pathology based symptomatology there can be disease specific homeopathic medicine derived from common symptomatic representation of a disease condition in a group of population.

Now this can not be the most similimum homeopathic prescription but roughly it can hit the disease condition within an indivudual though not accurate but will yeild some results in most of the cases.

To yield best homeopathic results there can be no generalised common approach for all cases.

But still if we have to attempt common standardised pathology based approach then to give some guidelines on homeopathic approach towards cases of reactive arthritis I have attempted following rough guidelines which may help to give some vision in approach towards such cases.

Its seen that in few case it begins after gastro-intestinal infection and in some case post genito-urinary infection. So this will further guide determining “morbid cause” behind the disease directing us in homoeopathic similimum medicine selection.

Now reactive Arthritis shows a triad of symptom in most of the cases. So this triad helps us to reach to group of medicines with such combination of symptoms.

Intensity, occurance of symptoms and its sequence in triad differs in each individuals. For example

  • In some person urogenital symptoms may be more severe compared to occular symptoms or arthritis symptoms, where as in others arthritis and ocular symptoms would be more severe than urogenital symptoms.
  • Some may not have occurence of  conjunctivitis
  • In some all three triad occur at a time where as in some patients it may occur gradually one after another in different sequence.

All this helps us find out the “seat of disease” in an individual and its degree of affinity towards various organs which can be related to homeopathic medicines during selection process.

Further arthritis may show different pattern like

  • progressive
  • migratory
  • additive
  • symetry
  • predominantly involved joint
  • sequence of joint involvement
  • number of joints involved
  • severity
  • intensity
  • type of sensation and other symptoms

Also similarly symptoms of occular involvement and urogenital involvement should be take in to account in absolute detail. This further helps refine and classify the patient and the respective medicines to be repertorised.

Which other systems and organs are involved like mucous membranes, skin, heart, kidney etc and what type of pathology they are showing like tissue destruction or just inflamation and functional disturbance or tissue lysis with regenerated and degenerative changes this will help to decide what “type of miasm” is underlying wether its psoric, syphillitic or psychotic type pathology.

Certain symptom are very “peculiar” for the  disease and occurs in few individuals like Keratoderma Blenorrhagica eruption, now location of this eruption will further help individualise the case.

Enthesitis – Inflamation of tendo-achilles and plantar fascitis is  “very specific” to the disease but does not occur in all individuals, so if plantar fascitis or inflamation of tendo-achilles if occurs in someine with this disease then it helps further in individualisation of during homeopathic medicine selection.

Other than this the general health and family background should be noted to derive  constitutional types and association of HLA B27 in 75% of this individual further helps in individualisation and homeopathic medicine selection.

COMMONLY USED HOMEOPATHIC MEDICINES FOR REACTIVE ARTHRITIS

  • PHOSPHORUS
  • ARSENICUM ALBUM
  • RHUS TOXICODENDRON
  • BRYONIA ALBA
  • LEDUM PALUSTURE
  • THUJA OCCIDENTALIS
  • ANTIMONIUM CRUDUM
  • ARGENTUM NITRICUM
  • BORAX
  • MERCURIOUS SOLUBILIS
  • PULSATILLA NIGRICANS

FROZEN SHOULDER HOMEOPATHIC TREATMENT

Frozen Shoulder also called Adhesive Capsulitis of shoulder joint is painful stiffness limiting range of motion of shoulder joint caused due to inflammation related pathophysiology in capsule of shoulder joint.

CAUSES AND RISK FACTORS OF FROZEN SHOULDER

CAUSE OF FROZEN SHOULDER

Exact cause of Frozen Shoulder remains unclear but there are many factors that increases the risk and lead to frozen shoulder

RISK FACTORS FOR FROZEN SHOULDER

GENDER

Frozen shoulder is more common in females than in males

AGE

Person above 40yrs of age are more prone to this condition

INJURIES

  • Injury to shoulder joint involving any of its companent especially gleno-humeral joint capsule or rotator cuff.
  • Sports persons typically develop calcifications of tendons around shoulder joint and also in joint structures due to repeated injury and result of prolonged inflamation such persons are at high risk of developing frozen shoulder.

REDUCED MOBILITY

  • Injuries to arm and neck may indirectly affect shoulder joint, due lack of motion in general of that region as a whole and changes pattern of gait and movements of that region.
  • Immobility or reduced mobility post surgerr with general debility and delayed recovery.
  • Immobility post stroke.

MUSCULO-SKELETAL DEFECTS

  • Certain congenital structural anomaly of Musculoskeletal framework which has influence on movement, gait and weight distribution pattern on shoulder joint in abnormal pattern, which may put the person at risk of develooing Frozen Shoulder.
  • Kyphosis or Scoliosis or other congenital or acquired spinal anomaly especially those above thoracic spinal level may increase risk of frozen shoulder.
  • Patients with cervical spondylosis are at risk of developing frozen shoulder.

RHUEMATIC DISORDERS

OTHER SYSTEMIC DISEASES

SYMPTOMS OF FROZEN SHOULDER

  • Pain in affected shoulder aggravates on movement
  • Loss of rang in motion of affected shoulder joint

Frozen Shoulder is divided into 3 stages

1) Freezing Stage

In Freezing Stage there is pain in joint which aggravates on motion and he range of motion gradually starts decreasing.

2) Frozen Stage

In Frozen Stage the pain is not much as compared to freezing stage but the range of motion is completely diminished so much so that patient can barely move the joint or cant move at all.

3) Thawing Stage

In Thawing Stage pain subsides and range of motion gradually starts improving and complete recovery is established in few weeks.

If it is acted upon quickly in freezing stage with intervention of physiotherapy and proper medication the progress of the disease is arrested and soon resolves completely.

DIAGNOSIS OF FROZEN SHOULDER

On clinical presentation of symptoms of the patient frozen shoulder can be diagnosed and radiological tests like X-rays, CT scan and MRI may be suggested inrequired cases to find out extent, severity of pathological condition within and also to rule out any other pathological condition within or around shoulder joint.

If along with shoulder joint if there are other joints involved simultaneously or frequently different joints in past then it becomes necessary to rule out other underlying systemic conditions like Rheumatoid ArthritisGout, Ankylosing Spondylosis, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus etc and for that your doctor may suggest blood tests like RA factor, ESR, CRP, ANA, S.uric acid and HLA B27 (where there is severe spinal involvement along with shoulder). Vitamin D should also be checked wether its in optimal range for better recovery.

TREATMENT OF FROZEN SHOULDER

Treatment of frozen shoulder is based on combination of both Physiotherapy and Medicines.

Physiotherapy plays a major role in cases of frozen shoulder. Physiotherapist takes support of certain modalities, recomends certain exercises and manual physical intervention where in he may exert mild force or pressure along and within the axis of movement of shoulder joint and try to open up the freezed shoulder and gradually retain its laxity and mobility.

Pain may temporarily increase during and  after physical intenvention but with regular recomended exercise and medicines it finally subsides and joint regains its complete range of axis of movement subsequently.

HOMEOPATHIC MEDICINES FOR FROZEN SHOULDER

If the frozen shoulder is without any underlying condition specific medicines will work well but if it is secondary to some underlying condition like autoimmune diseases or metabolic disorders or Infections or some other systemic or acute or chronic complaints then constitutional trearment along with initial acute specific remedy may be required.

List of Common Homeopathic Remedies Used in Frozen shoulder

  • Calcarea Flourica
  • Silicea
  • Calcarea Phosphorica
  • Thiosinaminum
  • Rhus Toxicodendron
  • Bryonia Alba
  • Arnica Montana
  • Plantago Major
  • Belladonna
  • Ledum Palusture

LUMBAR SPONDYLOSIS

Degenerative changes in vertebral bodies and intervertebral disc at the level of L1 to S1 in vertebral cloumn affecting lumbar region of spine is called Lumbar Spondylosis.

It is characterised by degenerative changes of Lumbar vertebral bodies like osteophyte lippings and spur formation, degeneration of  intervertebral disc, narrowing of intervertebral space, Intervertebral disc bulging, intervertebral disc herniation.

It can also be called Osteoarthritis of Lumbar Spine.

CAUSES OF LUMBAR SPONDYLOSIS

Lumbar Spondylosis may be caused due to many factors that can be broadly classified into Mechanical, Congenital or Acquired Anatomic anomalies, Metabolic, Immunologic, Genetic, Nutritional, Ageing and Septic reasons.

Most common of all are ageing and mechanical reasons like excessive wear and tear due to wrong postural habbits, type of work like driving for long duration regularly, sitting for long hours, lifting weights or working with bent posture etc. that exerts much pressure on lumbar spine on regular basis so as to not giving much time to recover again and resulting into accumulation of wear and tear finally damaging the spine and causing lumbar spondylosis.

Metabolic problems like Hyperuricemia/Gout where high level of uric acid in blood damages lumbar spine also this uric acid may get crystalised to form monosodium urate monohydrate and settle in the intervertebral joints and damage them.

Immunologically mediated chronic inflamation in lumbar spine like in Rheumatoid Arthritis, Chickenguniya, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus etc.

Genetic Complaints like Ankylosing Spondylosis etc

Vitamin D deficiency causes reduced calcium assimilation resulting into reduced bone mineral density causing weak bones easy to damage. Insufficient nutrition compared to requirement, which prevents repair work of regular wear and tear of lumbar spine, due to which damages tend to get accumulated resulting into lumbar spondylosis.

Congenital or acquired Anatomical anomalies in musculoskeletal framework that may cause abnormal posture or abnormal weight distribution which results into pressure on spine in wrong fashion gradually facilitates development of Lumbar spondylosis.

Septic Conditions of spine like Tuberculosis of spine may result into lumbar spondylosis due to tissue lysis as result of infection.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF LUMBAR SPONDYLOSIS

  • Pain and Stiffness  in lower back or Lumbar Region.
  • Sciatica due to compression of nerve roots of sciatic nerve.
  • Pain stinging pain in lumbar spine
  • Pain radiating from lumbar spine to lower limbs
  • Paraesthesia in lower back genitals or lower limbs
  • Cramps calfs, thighs and other muscle and muscle groups of lower limbs
  • Difficulty in walking and maintaining posture and balance.
  • Lack of control on urinary spincter or anal spincter resulting into either retention of urine or bowel or involuntary expulsion of urine and bowel
  • Sexual debility Tabes Dorsalis

COMPLICATIONS OF LUMBAR SPONDYLOSIS

Myelopathy – When there is damage to spinal cord it causes Myelopathy.

Raduclopathy – compression of nerve near nerve root where it emerges out of spinal cord.

Vertebrobasilar insufficiency – Vertebral artery insufficiency due to its occulusion while it passes through vertebral foremen sue to degenerative changes for lumbar spine causes vertebrobasilar insufficiency leading to death of condrocytes of intervertebral disc and osteophytes starts accumulating and depositing.

DIAGNOSIS OF LUMBAR SPONDYLOSIS

  • Clinical symptoms if indicate towards Lumbar spondylosis it can be then confirmed with X ray.
  • MRI and CT scan gives us better imaging which helps  judge and evaluate the extent of damage and condition
  • Myelograph is dye injected while Xray and CTscan this gives detailed shadow to understand even better
  • Electromyography helps evaluate nerve involvement in spondylosis.

HOMEOPATHIC MEDICINES FOR LUMBAR SPONDYLOSIS

  • HYPERICUM PERFOLIATUM
  • CALCAREA CARBONICA
  • GNAPHALLIUM
  • CALCAREA PHOSPHORICA
  • MAGNESIA PHOSPHORICA
  • ARNICA MONTANA
  • NATRUM SULPHURICUM
  • RHUS TOXICODENDRON
  • SILICEA
  • MEDHORRINUM

CERVICAL SPONDYLOSIS

Our spine is classified into cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral regions.

Cervical Spondylosis is condition where in vertebra and intervertebral discs of cervical region undergoes degeneration. 

It is characterised by thinning of intervertebral discs, reduced intervertebral space, osteophyte lipping, spurs formations,  herniation of intervertebral disc, nerve compression etc.

It can also be called osteoarthritis of cervical spine.

CAUSES OF CERVICAL SPONDYLOSIS

This degeneration can be due to various mechanical, immunological, infective, metabolic, genetic, nutritional and age related reasons.

It can be due to one or combination of than one ot the above reasons. Most of the cases are due to ageing and mechanical wear and tear related to abnormal physical exertion and postural habbits.

It is commonly seen in people assuming wrong posture for long hours like lying down with head placed on huge pillow or watching mobile phones or reading books with tilted head for long hours, staying on computer workstation with an arm stretched on mouse or key board for long transfers weight on neck.

When such postural habbits are prolonged for few hours to days its starts inflamatory process in cervival spine and if still prolonged for months to years the prolonged inflamation and mechanical wear and tear results into degeneration of spine.

Many genetic and immune mediated conditions like Rheumatoid arthritis, Ankylosing spondylosis, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Psoriatic Arthritis etc may result into prolonged chronic inflamation of spine ingeneral and gradual degeneration of cervical spine as well resulting into cervical spondylosis.

Metabolic reasons like hyperuricemia may result into deposition of monosodium urate monohydrate crystals into joint spaces in cervical spine resulting into subsequent erosion and degeneration of spine causing cervical spndylosis.

Certain infections in spine like tuberculosis results into degeneration of spine and spondylosis and when it affects cervical region on spine it causes cervical spondylosis.

With ageing there is depletion of anabolic hormones and other factors required for quick repair process which results into slow repair process compared to daily wear and tear and damages tends to accumulate and gradually resulting into erosion and degeneration of spine.

Nutritional deficiencies arised due to lower intake compared to requirement, resulting into lower calcium vitamin D and many other nutrients which not only slows down the repair process to built up damages but also gives rise to low bone mineral density resulting into erosion and degeneration of vertebral bodies.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF CERVICAL SPONDYLOSIS

In initial stages it starts with occasional stiffness and pain in neck lasting few minutes to hours after exertion gradually it starts persisting with pain on extreme range of axis of movement of neck then later even on smaller axis or range of motion of neck patient starts feeling stiffness or pain or discomfort in neck

If not taken care the nerves originating from cervical plexus which emerge out from cervical spine they start getting compressed causing myalgia paraesthesia in neck which may radiate to shoulder and extend upto arm and upto tip of fingers.

In severe cases of cervical spondylosis patient may also experience vertigo nausea vomitting complete loss of balance with pain in neck and gastric derangement as concomittant symptoms

COMPLICATIONS OF CERVICAL SPONDYLOSIS

CERVICAL SPONDYLOTIC MYELOPATHY (CSM) – It is caused due injury to spinal cord due to cervical spondylosis.

CERVICAL SPONDYLOTIC RADICULOPATHY – In this the nerve gets pinched and compressed near the nerve root shortly after it leaves spinal cord.

VERTIBROBASILAR INSUFFICIENCY – When vertebral artery which is passing through vertebral formen gets occluded and deprives chondrocytes of intervertebral disc from circulation as a result the die and weaken intervertebral disc and osteophytes starts settling in.

DIAGNOSIS OF CERVICAL SPONDYLOSIS

Cervical Compression Test – When the neck is tilted laterally and applied downward pressure patient feels pain on ipsilateral side in neck or shoulder , its not conclusive but indicative and qualifies case for further radiological investigations

Lhermitte’s Sign – Electrict Shock like pain on flexion of neck

These patients general show reduced range of motion of n

Based on clinical symptoms patient may be sent for X ray  for ascertaining the diagnosis.

MRI and CT Scan helps to further find out extent and severity of damage to spine.

Myelography is done with dye injection in spinal cord during CT or X ray for more detailed radiological imaging

Electromyography and Nerve Conduction Test helps to find out involvement of nerve and nerve damage and extent of nerve injury.

TREATMENT FOR CERVICAL SPONDYLOSIS

Guidlines to patients on maintaining correct posture, avoid jerk and strain to secure neck is of utmost importance in management of cervical spondylosis patients.

Proper calcium intake sufficient exposure to sunlight for vitamin D. Increased protein, vitamin B12 and iron intake.

Exercise like pranayam and walk helps stimulate hormone secretion and thus facilitating absorption and assimilation of nutrients required for repair and rebuilding the worn and damaged tissues and to increase bone mineral density.

Mild gentle exercise of neck helps increase local blood flow and keep tissue supple and stimulate its growth and strenght but if not done under proper guidance of qualified physiotherapist it may further injure the already damaged tissue. So if proper qualified physiotherapist is not available to guide its safer bet not to exercise neck region involving cervical spine on your own and giving it complete rest and let it recover on its own while still continueing with walk and pranayam regularly.

HOMEOPATHIC MEDICINES FOR CERVICAL SPONDYLOSIS

CIMICIFUGA RACEMOSA / ACTEA RACEMOSA

RHUS TOXICODENDRONE

ARNICA MONTANA

PLANTAGO MAJOR

HYPERICUM PERFOLIATUM

TUBERCULINUM

BELLADONNA

CALCAREA PHOSPHORICA

BELLIS PERENIS

SILICEA

MEDHORRINUM